Categorization of Animal Species and Artifacts
In a series of studies, young infants have been shown to form category representations for a variety of animal species and furniture artifacts reviewed in Quinn, 2002c . In the experiments investigating young infants' category representations of various animal species, 3- and 4-month-olds familiarized with instances of 12 domestic cats, representing different breeds and depicted in a variety of stances, will generalize familiarization to novel instances of domestic cats, but show novel category...
The Broader Ecology Of Attachment Security
Through this point I have considered what might be referred to as classical determinants of attachment security, namely those considered in most developmental theorizing about the origins of secure and insecure attachment Belsky, Rosenberger, amp Crnic, 1995a . But an ecological perspective on human development, one that underscores the fact that the parent-child dyad is embedded in a family system Belsky, 1981 , which is itself embedded in a community, cultural, and even historical context...
Examining Pathways Between Pubertal Effects and Adjustment in Girls
Proposed pathways between pubertal effects and adjustment were examined in a study of 100 adolescent girls between the ages of 10 to 14 Graber, Brooks-Gunn, amp Warren, in press . Girls were from well-educated, middle to upper-middle class families in a major northeastern urban area. Measures of pubertal status included Tanner ratings for breast and pubic hair development. Pubertal timing comparisons were made for early maturing versus other girls girls were classified as early using norms for...
Info Kiy
Figure 13.1 Mean proportions of responses showing gender sterotyped knowledge in girls and boys between 5 and 10. As shown in Figure 13.3, boys' same-sex preferences remain slightly higher than girls' throughout the study. For boys, same-sex preferences remain generally constant from age 5 to 9 and only show a minimal increase at age 10. Girls' same-sex preference trends are also pretty flat even though they show some small fluctuations with age. In contrast to the generally flat trends in...
The Big Three Components of Effective Youth Development Programs
What are the specific actions taken by youth development programs that make them effective in promoting the Five Cs Catalano et al. 1999 find that the preponderant majority about 75 of effective positive youth development programs focus on what Lerner 2004 termed the Big Three design features of effective positive youth development YD programs. YD programs involving the Big Three provide 1. Opportunities for youth participation in and leadership of activities that 2. Emphasize the development...
Introduction Idj
The onset of adolescence is considered a crucial developmental transition marked by a confluence of changes Brooks-Gunn, 1984 Graber amp Brooks-Gunn, 1996 Hamburg, 1974 . In addition to the drastic physical changes that occur, the adolescent decade is defined by the restructuring of social roles, expectations, and relationships within the family, peer group and school environment Feldman amp Elliott, 1990 Graber amp Brooks-Gunn, 1996 . The pubertal transition is considered an impetus for some...
References Qlp
Aboud, F. E. 1987 . The development of ethnic self-identification and attitudes. In J. S. Phinney amp M. J. Rotherman Eds. , Children's ethnic socialization Pluralism and development pp. 32-55 . Newbury Park, CA Sage. Adolescent Pathways Project. 1992 . Pennsylvania State University. Ainsworth, M. D., amp Bowlby, J. 1991 . An ethological approach to personality development. American Psychologist, 46, 333-341. Andersen, C. S. 1982 . The search for school climate A Review of the research. Review...
The Five Cs of Positive Youth Development
In our theoretical discussions of the Five Cs Lerner, 2004 Lerner et al., 2005, we have suggested that they may be latent constructs that capture the essence of to-be-developed indicators of the numerous mental, behavioral, and social relational elements that could comprise positive youth development PYD . Initially proposed by Little 1993 , these theoretical latent constructs were first discussed as Four Cs, i.e., competence, confidence, positive social connection, and character. Eccles and...
Concreteness and the Dual Representation Hypothesis
What accounts for the fragility of young children's comprehension of the relation between the room and the model In several studies we have demonstrated that the concreteness of the model is actually Short-Delay-First M ed ium-Del ay-Fi rst Figure 8.2 The effect of delay on children's use of a model. The initial delay led to much worse performance, even on the subsequent shorter days. a cause of children's difficulty in using it as a symbol. Highly attractive and salient objects may be...
The Effect of Gender Labels on Exploration Preferences and Performance
The three studies that have examined the effects of gender stereotypes on children's exploration have found that children are more likely to approach same-sex labeled toys when compared to opposite-sex labeled toys Bradbard amp Endsley, 1983 Bradbard, Martin, Endsley, amp Halverson, 1986 Masters, Ford, Arend, Grotevant, amp Clark, 1979 . For example, Bradbard et al. 1986 measured the amount of time 4 to 9-year-old children tactually explored novel objects after they were provided with same-sex,...
The Role Of Parents In The Vocabulary Spurt And Early Grammar
What role does parents' responsiveness play in children's language development during the period of the vocabulary spurt and beyond We speculated that verbal responsiveness would be associated with more rapid growth in children's productive language over the second year would predict the diversity of meanings children use to express their verbal constructions and would be associated with the developmental timing of both the vocabulary spurt and combinatorial speech i.e., combining words into...
Summary of Quality of Friendships Qualitative Data
Similar to what the research literature has suggested Savin-Williams amp Berndt, 1990 , shared secrets were a critical part of the experience of closeness for the adolescents in our studies. Contrary to the existing literature on friendships, however, shared secrets or the desire to share secrets was just as important for boys as for girls. Perhaps among adolescents who come from more interdependent cultures e.g., poor and working class, African American, Latino, and Asian American families ,...
Intrinsic Motivation Theories
The theories described in this section deal with the distinction when intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. When individuals are intrinsically motivated they do activities either because they enjoy doing them or because they want to do them. When extrinsically motivated, individuals do activities for instrumental or other reasons, such as receiving a reward. Two basic assumptions about behavior underlie Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory 1 the assumption that humans are...
Introduction Vpo
Middle childhood is one of the least studied and yet one of the most exciting periods of life. Imagine a 5-year-old girl going to kindergarten for her first day of formal school. Now imagine this same girl at 12 years when she goes to secondary school. At 5 years, she is a cute child still anxious about separating from her parents as they leave her at the school. By 12, she will have grown into a young woman with secondary sex characteristics. In some populations, she will already have begun...
References Isu
Achenbach, T. M. 1991 . Manual for the Youth Self-Report and 1991 Profile. Burlington University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry. Ahmed, M. L., Ong, K. K. L., Morrell, D. J., Cox, L., Drayer, N., Perry, L., et al. 1999 . Longitudinal study of leptin concentrations during puberty Sex differences and relationship to changes in body composition. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 84, 899-905. Alsaker, F. D. 1992 . Pubertal timing, overweight, and psychological adjustment....
CrossLaggedPanel Correlations
The relationships between children's stereotyped knowledge and preference scores were examined using cross-lagged-panel correlations. This type of analysis allows us to assess whether there are concurrent relationships between these two dimensions, or whether children's knowledge predicts preferences after a time lag. In addition, the stability of knowledge and preferences over time can also be explored. Given that stereotype knowledge develops during ages 5 to 7, we focused on these lagged...
Empathyrelated Responding And Prosocial Behavior
Numerous philosophers and psychologists have suggested that empathy-related processes motivate prosocial behavior Blum, 1980 Hoffman, 2000 Hume, 1777 1966 Staub, 1979 that when people experience others' negative emotions, they are likely to engage in prosocial behavior. However, in 1982 Underwood and Moore published a review in which they found, contrary to most theories, no empirical relation between empathy and prosocial behavior. Upon careful consideration of this literature, it became clear...
Eccles Wigfield and Colleagues Work on Subjective Task Values
Eccles and her colleagues have elaborated the concept of subjective task value. Building on earlier work on achievement values e.g., Battle, 1966 , intrinsic and extrinsic motivation e.g., Deci, 1975 Gottfried, 1990 , and on Rokeach's 1979 view that values are shared beliefs about desired end-states, Eccles Parsons et al. 1983 outlined four motivational components of task value attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost. Like Battle 1966 , they defined attainment value as the...
Biological Theories
In recent years, gender development researchers have called for an increased recognition of the integrative role of biological factors in the production of sex differences e.g., Alexander, 2003 Kenrick amp Luce, 2000 Maccoby, 2000, 2002b Ruble amp Martin, 1998 Zucker, 2001 . Biological approaches to gender development have focused on issues ranging from the role of genes and hormones to the effects of evolution on sex differences in behavior. For example, research on the effects of hormones is...
Models Linking Pubertal Processes And Psychosocial Adjustment
The research that links puberty with psychosocial adjustment involves two main categories of models pubertal status and timing of puberty Brooks-Gunn, Graber et al., 1994 Buchanan et al., 1992 Graber, Brooks-Gunn, amp Archibald, 2005 Graber, Brooks-Gunn, amp Warren, in press . Pubertal status models refer to adolescents' degree of physical maturation and their hormone levels. Models that examine hormone levels are considered direct effect models, and those that measure physical change secondary...
Historical Background
The domains identified as relevant for understanding spatial-graphic representations representation, space, and aesthetics have important histories within developmental psychology. I next highlight past approaches and controversies within each. Representations are the tools that enable the child to move from thinking and reasoning about the here and now, to thinking and reasoning about things that are not currently in view e.g., a toy in the next room or a grandparent who visited last week ,...
Nonmaternal Care
Because of the role that lengthy child-parent separations played in Bowlby's original formulations of attachment theory, concern has been raised often about the consequences of more routine, short-term separations of the kind experienced on a daily basis by children cared for by someone other than a parent when mother is employed. The initial work addressing this issue focused almost exclusively upon children being cared for in very-high-quality, university-based centers and generally failed to...
New Longitudinal Data
The question of when gender knowledge affects children's preferences was partly addressed in a recent longitudinal study of 5- to 10-year-old children. Trautner, Ruble, Kirsten, amp Hartmann 2005 followed kindergarten children for 5 years and obtained yearly assessments of their gender knowledge of specific objects and activities and their verbal preferences for those same items. This study was part of a larger longitudinal research project on gender development in German children see Trautner,...
Perceptual Categorization
In addition to developing representations for coherent objects depicted in a single presentation of visual pattern information, members of the human species must at some point during development become capable of forming representations that are inclusive of numerous objects appearing over a more extended period of time. In compiling these representations inclusive of multiple items, individuals are apparently detecting some basis of equivalence among them. This basis could be perceptual,...
Peak Rigidity Age Groups
To detect whether same-sex and opposite sex preferences change as a function of stereotype rigidity, children's preference scores were charted before and after their age of peak rigidity. Figure 13.5 displays the same-sex preference trends for girls and boys. In contrast to the flat preference trends observed when children were grouped according to chronological age, there appear to be clear developmental changes in children's same-sex preferences in relation to the degree to which they rigidly...
Test Stimuli 1
Figure 5.3 Familiarization and test stimuli used to test adherence to the form similarity Gestalt organizational principle in Quinn, Bhatt, Brush, Grimes, and Sharpnack 2002 . The rationale is that if infants can organize the familiar stimulus in the top panel into columns, then the vertical-column test stimulus should be perceived as familiar, and the horizontal-row test stimulus should be preferred. Similarly, if infants can organize the familiar stimulus in the bottom panel into rows, then...
Learned Helplessness
As defined by Dweck and Goetz 1978 , learned helplessness . . . exists when an individual perceives the termination of failure to be independent of his responses p. 157 . Learned helplessness has been related to individuals' attributions for success and failure Helpless individuals are more likely to attribute their failures to uncontrollable factors, such as lack of ability, and their successes to unstable factors see Dweck amp Goetz, 1978 . Dweck and her colleagues have documented several...
SocialCognitive Theory
Bussey and Bandura's 1999 most recent account proposes that children's development of sex-typed knowledge and competencies is promoted by modeling, enactive experience, and direct tuition. As in previous versions of their theory, observational learning continues to take center stage as the major conveyor of gender-typed information. Through cognitive functions such as attentional and representational processes, symbolic conceptions derived through modeling are able to be translated into...
References Cgv
Aukrust, V. G., amp Snow, C. E. 1998 . Narratives and explanations in Norwegian and American mealtime conversations. Language in Society, 27 2 , 221-246. Bartlett, F. 1932 . Remembering A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge Cambridge University Press. Berman, R. A., amp Slobin, D. I. 1994 . Relating events in narrative A crosslinguistic developmental study. Hillsdale, NJ Erlbaum. Bishop, D. M., amp Edmundson, A. 1987 . Language impaired four year olds Distinguishing transient...
The Role Of Temperament
An alternative explanation of individual differences in attachment to that proposed by Ainsworth 1973 emphasizing the quality of maternal care draws attention to the infant's temperament, especially the dimension of negative emotionality or difficulty e.g., Goldsmith amp Alansky, 1987 . In particular, it was argued that insecurity reflects distress in the Strange Situation, which itself is a function of temperament Chess amp Thomas, 1982 Kagan, 1982 . A fundamental problem with this...
References Cye
Asher, S. R., amp Coie, J. 1990 . Peer rejection in childhood Vol. . Cambridge Cambridge University Press. Bakeman, R., amp Brownlee. 1980 . The strategic use of parallel play A sequential analysis. Child Development, 51, 873-878. Blurton-Jones, N. 1972 . Categories of child-child interaction. In N. Blurton-Jones Ed. , Ethnological studies of child behavior. Cambridge Cambridge University Press. Bowlby, J. 1969 1982 . Attachment and Loss Vol. 1. Attachment. London Hogarth. Bretherton, I. 1985 ....
Spatial Understanding Vantage Point
As discussed earlier and as illustrated in Figure 12.2, any given representation has a particular vantage point that is determined by the combination of viewing distance, viewing angle, and viewing azimuth. Our empirical work has addressed children's developing appreciation of vantage point by examining their ability to distinguish among images that depict the same referent from different vantage points, and to produce representations that fit certain vantage-point specific qualities. As one...
Cognitive Theories of Gender Development
Cognitive-oriented theorists view children as active constructors of knowledge who seek, interpret, and act on information in an effort to match their behavior to their understanding of gender Martin, 1993 Martin, 2000 Martin amp Dinella, 2002 Martin et al., 2002, 2004 Martin amp Ruble, 2004 Ruble, 1994 . This idea was proposed by Kohlberg 1966 when he first outlined his cognitive-developmental theory of gender development. In his view, children's understanding of gender emerges as children...
Social Experiences
From infancy onward, children have a range of experiences that might either assist or retard their understanding of the social world, including the mental life of others. I consider three different types of experience separately though it will be clear that they are not independent of one another. A potentially rich milieu to learn about what others think and feel is the give and take of social interactions within the family. Through discussions, arguments, and negotiations with parents and...
Info Vig
EMOTIONAL SELF-REGULATION IN INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD 3 Wendy S. Grolnick, Jannette M. McMenamy, and Carolyn O. Kurowski THE NATURE, ETIOLOGY, AND CONSEQUENCES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN TEMPERAMENT 27 DETERMINANTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF INFANT-PARENT ATTACHMENT 53 SOCIAL INFLUENCES IN THE FIRST YEARS OF LIFE 79 Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda, Tonia N. Cristofaro, Eileen T. Rodriguez, and Marc H. Bornstein ON THE EMERGENCE OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION AND CATEGORIZATION IN YOUNG INFANTS ROLES FOR...